grat ruler ALEXANDER

Alexander the Great:
                                                                         This article is regarding the traditional king of Macedon. For different uses, see Alexander the nice (disambiguation).
Alexander the nice
Basileus of Macedon, Hegemon of the Hellenic League, Shahanshah of Persia, swayer of Egypt, Lord of Asia
Alexander the nice mosaic.jpg
"Alexander fighting king male monarch of Persia", Alexander Mosaic, port National archeologic repository.
King of Macedonia
Reign 336–323 before Christ
Predecessor Philip II
Successor Alexander IV
Philip III
Pharaoh of Egypt
Reign 332–323 before Christ
Predecessor Darius III
Successor Alexander IV
Philip III
King of Persia (Iran)
Reign 330–323 before Christ
Predecessor Darius III
Successor Alexander IV
Philip III
King of Asia
Reign 331–323 before Christ
Predecessor New workplace
Successor Alexander IV
Philip III
Spouse Roxana of Bactria
Stateira II of Persia
Parysatis II of Persia
Issue Alexander IV
Full name
Alexander III of Macedon
Greek
Μέγας Ἀλέξανδροςiii[›] (Mégas Aléxandros, nice Alexander)
Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας (Aléxandros atomic number 67 Mégas, Alexander the Great)
Dynasty Argead phratry
Father Philip II of Macedon
Mother Olympias of Epirus
Born 20 or twenty one July 356 before Christ
Pella, Macedon
Died 10 or eleven Gregorian calendar month 323 before Christ (aged 32)
Babylon
Religion Greek theism
Alexander III of Macedon: (20/21 July 356 before Christ – 10/11 Gregorian calendar month 323 BC), usually referred to as Alexander the nice (Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας, Aléxandros atomic number 67 Mégas [a.lék.san.dros ho mé.gas]),iii[›] was a King (Basileus) of the traditional Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead phratry. Born in Pella in 356 before Christ, Alexander succeeded his father, Philip II, to the throne at the age of twenty. He spent most of his ruling years on AN new campaign through Asia and northeast Africa, till by the age of thirty he had created one in all the biggest empires of the traditional world, stretching from Balkan nation to Egypt and into northwest India. He was undefeated  in battle and is taken into account one in all history's most productive military commanders.
During his youth, Alexander was educated by the thinker philosopher till the age of sixteen. once Prince Philip was dead in 336 before Christ, Alexander succeeded his father to the throne ANd transmissible a powerful kingdom and an fully fledged army. He had been awarded the generalship of Balkan nation and used this authority to launch his father's Panhellenic project to steer the Greeks within the conquest of Persia. In 334 before Christ, he invaded the Achaemenid Empire, dominated peninsula, and commenced a series of campaigns that lasted 10 years. Alexander skint the ability of Persia in an exceedingly series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. He later overthrew the Persian King male monarch and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its completeness.i[›] At that time, his empire stretched from the Adriatic to the Indus.
Seeking to achieve the "ends of the globe and therefore the nice Outer Sea", he invaded India in 326 before Christ, however was eventually forced to show back at the demand of his troops. Alexander died in city in 323 before Christ, the town he planned to ascertain as his capital, while not capital punishment a series of planned campaigns that may have begun with AN invasion of peninsula. within the years following his death, a series of civil wars moulding his empire apart, leading to many states dominated by the Diadochi, Alexander's living generals and heirs.
Alexander's bequest includes the cultural diffusion his conquests engendered, like Greco-Buddhism. He supported some twenty cities that bore his name, most notably Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and therefore the ensuing unfold of Greek culture within the east resulted in an exceedingly new principle civilization, aspects of that were still evident within the traditions of the geographic region within the mid-15th century and therefore the presence of Greek speakers in central and much jap Asia Minor till the Twenties. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero within the mould of mythical being, and he options conspicuously within the history and story of Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the live against that military leaders compared themselves, and military academies throughout the globe still teach his ways.
ii[›] he's typically stratified among the world's most cogent individuals of all time, together with his teacher philosopher.
 Early life:

 Lineage and childhood:
                                                       young Alexander the nice from the principle era, British depository
Aristotle tutoring Alexander, by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris
Alexander was born on the sixth day of the traditional Greek month of Hekatombaion, that in all probability corresponds to twenty Gregorian calendar month 356 BC, though the precise date isn't legendary, in Pella, the capital of the dominion of Macedonia. He was the son of the king of Macedonia, Philip II, and his fourth spouse, Olympias, the girl of Neoptolemus I, king of geographical area. though Prince Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal spouse for a few time, possible a results of birth to Alexander.
Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood. consistent with the traditional Greek writer biographer, Olympias, on the eve of the consummation of her wedding to Prince Philip, unreal that her uterus was smitten by a thunder bolt, inflicting a flame that unfold "far and wide" before dying away. a while when the marriage, Prince Philip is alleged to
own seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's uterus with a seal incised with a lion's image. biographer offered a spread of interpretations of those dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her wedding, indicated by the waterproofing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was Zeus. Ancient commentators were divided concerning whether or not the bold Olympias publicised the story of Alexander's divine parentage, diversely claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she unemployed the suggestion as impious.
On the day that Alexander was born, Prince Philip was getting ready a beleaguering on town of Potidea on the ground of Chalcidice. that very same day, Prince Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies, which his horses had won at the Olympic Games. it had been conjointly same that on in this day and age, the Temple of Greek deity in city, one among the Seven Wonders of the planet, burnt down. This junction rectifier Hegesias of magnesium oxide to mention that it had burnt down as a result of Greek deity was away, attending the birth of Alexander. Such legends might have emerged once Alexander was king, and presumably at his own instigation, to indicate that he was powerful and destined for greatness from conception.
In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, Lanike, sister of Alexander's future general Cleitus the Black. Later in his childhood, Alexander was schooled by the strict king, a relative of his mother, and by Philip's general Lysimachus. Alexander was raised within the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to browse, play the harp, ride, fight, and hunt.
When Alexander was 10 years recent, a merchandiser from geographical region brought Prince Philip a horse, that he offered to sell for 13 abilities. The horse refused to be mounted and Prince Philip ordered it away. Alexander but, sleuthing the horse's concern of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, that he eventually managed. biographer declared that Prince Philip, joyful at this show of bravery and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you want to realize a kingdom sufficiently big for your ambitions. Macedonia is just too little for you", and acquired the horse for him. Alexander named it Bucephalas, that means "ox-head". Bucephalas carried Alexander as so much as India. once the animal died (due to adulthood, consistent with biographer, at age thirty), Alexander named a town when him, Bucephala.

Adolescence and education:
                                                                      When Alexander was thirteen, Prince Philip began to look for an educator, and thought of such teachers as orator and Speusippus, the latter providing to resign to require up the post. In the end, Prince Philip selected Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as a schoolroom. reciprocally for teaching Alexander, Prince Philip in agreement to build Aristotle's town of Stageira, that Prince Philip had dismantled, and to repopulate it by shopping for and liberating the ex-citizens UN agency were slaves, or pardoning those that were in exile.
Mieza was sort of a private school for Alexander and therefore the kids of Macedonian nobles, like Ptolemy, Hephaistion, and Cassander. several of those students would become his friends and future generals, and area unit typically called the 'Companions'. Aristotle instructed Alexander and his companions concerning medication, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. below Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of Homer, ANd above all the Iliad; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, that Alexander later carried on his campaigns.
Philip's heir:

Regency and ascent of Macedonia:

                                                     Main articles: Prince Philip II of Macedonia and Rise of Macedonia
Philip II of Macedonia, Alexander's father.
At age 16, Alexander's education below Aristotle terminated. Prince Philip waged war against Byzantion, going Alexander guilty as regent and heir. throughout Philip's absence, the Thracian Maedi revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly, driving them from their territory. He inhabited it with Greeks, and supported a town named Alexandropolis.

Upon Philip's come back, he sent Alexander with alittle force to subdue revolts in southern geographical area. effort against the Greek town of Perinthus, Alexander is rumored to own saved his father's life. Meanwhile, town of Amphissa began to figure lands that were sacred to Phoebus Apollo close to metropolis, a blasphemy that gave Prince Philip the chance to additional intervene in Greek affairs. Still occupied in geographical area, he ordered Alexander to muster a military for a campaign in Hellenic Republic. involved that alternative Greek states may intervene, Alexander created it look as if he was getting ready to attack geographical region instead. throughout this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, solely to be repelled by Alexander.

Philip and his army joined his son in 338 B.C., and that they marched south through Thermopylae, taking it when stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy town of Elatea, solely a couple of days' march from each Athens and Thebes. The Athenians, junction rectifier by rhetorician, voted to hunt alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. each Athens and Prince Philip sent embassies to win Thebes' favor, however Athens won the competition. Prince Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly performing on the request of the Amphictyonic League), capturing the mercenaries sent there by rhetorician and acceptive the city's surrender. Prince Philip then came back to Elatea, causing a final provide of peace to Athens and Thebes, UN agency each rejected it.

Statue of Alexander in Constantinople anthropology depository.

As Prince Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him close to pitched battle, Boeotia. throughout the following Battle of pitched battle, Prince Philip commanded the correct wing and Alexander the left, in the course of a bunch of Philip's trusty generals. consistent with the traditional sources, the 2 sides fought bitterly for a few time. Prince Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, relying on the untested Athenian hoplites to follow, therefore breaking their line. Alexander was the primary to interrupt the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having broken the enemy's cohesion, Prince Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were enclosed. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.

After the ending at pitched battle, Prince Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, welcome by all cities; but, once they reached Sparta, they were refused, however didn't resort to war. At port, Prince Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modeled on the recent anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), including most Greek city-states except Sparta. Prince Philip was then named Hegemon (often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by fashionable students because the League of Corinth), and declared his plans to attack the Persian Empire.

Exile and come back:   When Prince Philip came back to Pella, he fell taken with with and married Cleopatra mythical being, the kinswoman of his general Attalus. the wedding created Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra mythical being would be a totally Macedonian heir, whereas Alexander was solely half-Macedonian. throughout the marriage banquet, a intoxicated  Attalus publically prayed to the gods that the union would manufacture a legitimate heir.

At the marriage of Cleopatra, whom Prince Philip fell taken with with and married, she being a lot of too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would plead the gods to provide them a lawful successor to the dominion by his kinswoman. This therefore irritated Alexander, that throwing one among the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Prince Philip, taking Attalus's half, rose up and would have run his son through; however by fortune for them each, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, created his foot slip, in order that he fell down on the ground. At that Alexander reprovingly abused over him: "See there," said he, "the man UN agency makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, upturned en passant from one seat to a different."

—Plutarch, describing the feud at Philip's wedding.

Alexander fled Macedonia along with his mother, dropping her off together with her brother, King Alexander I of geographical area in Dodona, capital of the Molossians. He continuing to geographical region, wherever he wanted refuge with the Illyrian King and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a couple of years before. However, it seems Prince Philip ne'er meant to disinherit his politically and militarily trained son. consequently, Alexander came back to Macedonia when six months owing to the efforts of a family friend, Demaratus, UN agency mediate between the 2 parties.

In the following year, the Persian governor (governor) of Caria, Pixodarus, offered his eldest girl to Alexander's stepbrother, Prince Philip Arrhidaeus. Olympias and a number of other of Alexander's friends advised this showed Prince Philip meant to form Arrhidaeus his heir. Alexander reacted by causing AN actor, Thessalus of port, to inform Pixodarus that he mustn't provide his daughter's hand to AN illegitimate son, however instead to Alexander. once Prince Philip detected of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for desire to marry the girl of a Carian, explaining that he needed a more robust bride for him. Prince Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him enchained.

King of Makedonija:

Accession: The Kingdom of Makedonija in 336 BC.In summer 336 BC, whereas at Aegae attending the marriage of his female offspring Cleopatra to Olympias's brother, tzar of geographic region, prince was dead by the captain of his bodyguards, Pausanias.vi[›] As Pausanias tried to flee, he tripped over a tracheophyte and was killed by his pursuers, together with 2 of Alexander's companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus. Alexander was declared king by the nobles and armed forces at the age of twenty.

Consolidation of power:The enthronisation of Alexander as represented within the fifteenth century romance The History of Alexander’s Battles, J1 version. NLW MS Pen.481D

Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his relation, the previous Amyntas IV, executed. He conjointly had 2 Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed, however spared a 3rd, Alexander Lyncestes. Olympias had Cleopatra mythical being and Galilean, her female offspring by prince, burned alive. once Alexander learned concerning this, he was furious. Alexander conjointly ordered the murder of Attalus, WHO was in command of the advance guard of the military in Anatolia and Cleopatra's uncle.

Attalus was at that point corresponding with national leader, concerning the likelihood of defecting to Athens. Attalus conjointly had severely affronted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander might have thought-about him too dangerous to depart alive. Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, WHO was by all accounts mentally disabled, presumably as a results of poisoning by Olympias.

News of Philip's death roused many countries into revolt, together with Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and also the Thraco-Phrygian tribes north of Makedonija. once news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. although suggested to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered three,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards geographical region. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. once the Thessalians awoke succeeding day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly relinquished, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued  south towards the Peloponnesus.

Alexander stopped at battle of Thermopylae, wherever he was recognized because the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The noted encounter between Alexander and philosopher the Cynic occurred throughout Alexander's keep in Corinth. once Alexander asked philosopher what he might do for him, the thinker disdainfully asked Alexander to face to a small degree to the aspect, as he was interference the daylight. This reply apparently delighted Alexander, WHO is rumored to own aforesaid "But verily, if I weren't Alexander, i might wish to be philosopher." At Corinth, Alexander took the title of Hegemon ("leader") and, like prince, was appointed commander for the approaching war against Persia. He conjointly received news of a Thraco-Phrygian battle.

Balkan campaig:    Main article: Alexander's Balkan campaignBefore crossing to Asia, Alexander wished to safeguard his northern borders. within the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress many revolts. ranging from Amphipolis, he traveled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians"; and at Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thraco-Phrygian forces manning the heights. The Macedonians marched into the country of the Triballi, and defeated their army close to the Lyginus river (a tributary of the Danube). Alexander then marched for 3 days to the Danube River, encountering the Getae tribe on the other shore. Crossing the stream in the dead of night, he shocked them and compelled their army to retreat when the primary cavalry skirmish.

News then reached Alexander that Cleitus, King of geographical area, and King Glaukias of the Taulanti were in open revolt against his authority. march west into geographical area, Alexander defeated every successively, forcing the 2 rulers to escape with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier.

While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled yet again. Alexander right away headed south. whereas the opposite cities once more hesitated, Thebes set to fight. The Greek resistance was ineffective, and Alexander dismantled the town and divided its territory between the opposite dominion cities. the top of Thebes afraid Athens, going away all of Ellas quickly gone. Alexander then taken off on his Asian campaign, going away Antipater as regent.

Conquest of the empire: Main articles: Wars of Alexander the good and Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the good into Asia

Youths of the Pellaians and of the Macedonians and of the Greek Amphictiony and of the Lakedaimonians and of the Corinthians… and of all the Greek peoples, be part of your fellow-soldiers and entrust yourselves to Maine, in order that we are able to move against the barbarians and liberate ourselves from the Persian bondage, for as Greeks we should always not be slaves to barbarians.
—Alexander the good, Pseudo-Kallisthenes, Historia Alexandri Magni 

Asia Minor: Further information: Battle of the Battle of Granicus River, besieging of Halicarnassus and besieging of Miletus

Map of Alexander's empire and his route
Alexander's army crossed the sound in 334 BC with more or less forty eight,100 troopers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of one hundred twenty ships with crews enumeration thirty eight,000, drawn from Makedonija and numerous Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised troopers from Thrace, Paionia, and geographical area. (However, Arrian, WHO used Ptolemy as a supply, aforesaid that Alexander crossed with over five,000 horse and thirty,000 foot; Diodorus quoted constant totals, however listed five,100 horse and thirty two,000 foot. Diodorus conjointly cited AN advance force already gift in Asia, that Polyaenus, in his Stratagems of War (5.44.4), aforesaid numbered ten,000 men.) He showed his intent to beat everything of the empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and speech communication he accepted Asia as a present from the gods. This conjointly showed Alexander's avidness to fight, in distinction to his father's preference for diplomacy.
After AN initial triumph against Persian forces at the Battle of the Battle of Granicus River, on the twenty four of Daisios (8 April 334 BC), Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian city and treasury of Sardis; he then proceeded on the Ionian coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities. Miletos, command by Achaemenid forces, needed a fragile besieging operation, with Persian armed service close. more south, at Halicarnassus, in Caria, Alexander with success waged his initial large-scale besieging, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and also the Persian governor of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by ocean. Alexander left the govt of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid sept, Ada, WHO adopted Alexander.
From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous geographical area and also the Pamphylian plain, declarative management over all coastal cities to deny the Persians armed service bases. From Pamphylia onward the coast command no major ports and Alexander captive landlocked. At Termessos, Alexander low however didn't storm the Pisidian town. At the traditional Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the as yet insoluble Gordian Knot, a exploit aforesaid to expect the long run "king of Asia". in line with the story, Alexander declared that it didn't matter however the knot was undone and hacked it apart along with his blade.

The Levant and Asian nation:Further information: Battle of battle of Issus and besieging of Tyre (332 BC)

Detail of Alexander Mosaic, showing Battle of battle of Issus, from the House of the Roman deity, Pompeii.
In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the Taurus into Cilicia. when a protracted pause thanks to unwellness, he marched on towards Asian nation. although outmanoeuvered by Darius' considerably larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, wherever he defeated Darius at Issos. Darius fled the battle, inflicting his army to collapse, and left behind his mate, his 2 daughters, his mother Sisygambis, and a superb treasure. He offered a peace that enclosed the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of ten,000 skills for his family. Alexander replied that since he was currently king of Asia, it absolutely was he alone WHO set territorial divisions.
Alexander proceeded to require possession of Asian nation, and most of the coast of the Levant.[78] within the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attack Tyre, that he captured when a protracted and troublesome besieging. Alexander massacred the boys of military age and oversubscribed the ladies and youngsters into slavery.

Egypt:   Further information: besieging of geographical area

Name of Alexander the good in Egyptian hieroglyphs (written from right to left), c. 330 BC, Egypt. Louvre Museum. 

When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the cities on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated. A later tradition recorded his entry into Jerusalem: in line with historiographer, Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel's prophecy, presumptively chapter eight, that represented a mighty Greek king WHO would conquer the empire. He spared national capital and pushed south into Egypt. but, Alexander met with resistance at geographical area. The fastness was heavily fortified and designed on a hill, requiring a besieging. once "his engineers noted to him that due to the peak of the mound it might be impossible… this inspired Alexander all the additional to create the attempt". . when 3 unsuccessful assaults, the fastness fell, however not before Alexander had received a significant shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were place to the blade and also the ladies and youngsters were oversubscribed into slavery.

Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, wherever he was considered a helper.[He was pronounced son of the immortal Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis within the desert. henceforward, Alexander typically cited Zeus-Ammon as his true father, and when his death, currency represented him adorned with rams horn as an emblem of his divinity. throughout his keep in Egypt, he supported Alexandria-by-Egypt, which might become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom when his death.

Assyria and geographical region:Further information: Battle of Gaugamela
Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into geographical region (now northern Iraq) and once more defeated Darius, at the Battle of Gaugamela. Darius another time fled the sector, and Alexander hunted person him as way as Arbela. Gaugamela would be the ultimate and decisive encounter between the 2. Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamedan), whereas Alexander captured metropolis.

Persia:  Further information: Battle of the Persian Gate
Site of the Persian Gate; the road was in-built the Nineteen Nineties.
From metropolis, Alexander visited Susa, one in every of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its legendary treasury. He sent the majority of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of metropolis via the road. Alexander himself took designated troops on the direct route to the town. He had to storm the pass of the Persian Gates (in the fashionable Zagros Mountains) that had been blocked by a Persian army below Ariobarzanes and so helter-skelter to metropolis before its garrison might loot the treasury.
On coming into metropolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the town for many days. Alexander stayed in metropolis for 5 months. throughout his keep a hearth poor enter the jap palace of Xerxes and unfold to the remainder of the town. attainable causes embody a sottish accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the citadel of Athens throughout the Second Persian War.

Fall of the Empire and also the East: Silver coin of Alexander sporting the lion scalp of Heracles, British repository.
Alexander then hunted person Darius, initial into Media, and so geographic region.The Persian king not controlled his own destiny, and was taken unfortunate person by Bessus, his Bactrian governor and relation. As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the good King and so declared himself Darius' successor as Artaxerxes V, before withdrawing into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander. Alexander buried Darius' remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a very majestic observance. He claimed that, whereas dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne. The Achaemenid Empire is generally thought-about to own fallen with Darius.
Alexander viewed Bessus as a offender and taken off to defeat him. This campaign, at first against Bessus, become a circuit of central Asia. Alexander supported a series of latest cities, all referred to as Alexandria, together with fashionable Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate ("The Furthest") in fashionable Tadzhik. The campaign took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and geographic area.
Spitamenes, WHO command AN undefined  position within the satrapy of Sogdiana, in 329 BC betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy, one in every of Alexander's trustworthy  companions, and Bessus was dead. but, when, at some purpose later, Alexander was on the Jaxartes handling AN incursion by a horse wanderer army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander in person defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and right away launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him within the Battle of Gabai. when the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, WHO then sued for peace.

Problems and plots:
The killing of Cleitus, André Castaigne 1898–1899
During this point, Alexander adopted some components of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of proskynesis, either a symbolic necking of the hand, or prostration on the bottom, that Persians showed to their social superiors. The Greeks regarded the gesture because the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This price him the sympathies of the many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.
A plot against his life was unconcealed, and one in every of his officers, Philotas, was dead for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the daddy, and therefore Parmenion, WHO had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana, was dead at Alexander's command, to stop makes an attempt at payback. Most infamously, Alexander in person killed the person WHO had saved his life at Battle of Granicus River, Cleitus the Black, throughout a violent sottish fracas at Maracanda (modern day Samarcand in Uzbekistan), within which Cleitus suspect Alexander of many judgemental mistakes and most importantly, of getting forgotten the Macedonian ways in which in favour of a corrupt oriental mode.
Later, within the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was unconcealed, this one instigated by his own royal pages. His official historiographer, Callisthenes of Olynthus, was involved within the plot; but, historians have nevertheless to succeed in a agreement concerning this involvement. Callisthenes had fallen out of favor by leading the opposition to the conceive to introduce proskynesis.

Macedon in Alexander's absence:When Alexander taken off for Asia, he left his general Antipater, AN older military and politician and a part of prince II's "Old Guard", answerable of Makedonija. Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Ellas remained quiet throughout his absence. The one exception was a decision to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in battle at populated area the subsequent year. Antipater referred the Spartans' social control to the League of Corinth, that then delayed to Alexander, WHO selected to pardon them.There was conjointly wide friction between Antipater and Olympias, and every complained to Alexander concerning the opposite.
In general, Ellas enjoyed a amount of peace and prosperity throughout Alexander's campaign in Asia. Alexander sent back immense sums from his conquest, that stirred the economy and enhanced trade across his empire. but, Alexander's constant demands for troops and also the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's personnel, greatly weakening it within the years when Alexander, and ultimately junction rectifier to its subjugation by Rome.

Indian campaign:                                                          Main article: Indian campaign of Alexander the good
Forays into the Indian landmass:The phalanx assaultive the centre within the Battle of the Hydaspes by André Castaigne (1898–1899)

After the death of Spitamenes and his wedding to Roxana (Roshanak in Bactrian) to cement relations together with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian landmass. He invited the chieftains of the previous satrapy of Gandhara, within the north of what's currently Pakistan, to return to him and undergo his authority. Omphis(Indian name Ambhi Kumar), the ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes (Jhelum), complied, however the chieftains of some hill clans, together with the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas (known in Indian texts conjointly as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit. Ambhi hastened to alleviate Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, inserting himself and every one his forces at his disposal. Alexander not solely came back Ambhi his title {and the|and therefore the|and conjointly the} gifts however he also given him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, thirty horses and one thousand abilities in gold". Alexander was bold to divide his forces, and Ambhi aided Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus wherever it bends at Hund (Fox 1973), equipped their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital town of Taxila, with each demonstration of relationship and therefore the most liberal welcome.
On the next advance of the Macedonian king, Taxiles attended him with a force of 5000 men and took half within the battle of the Hydaspes watercourse. at the moment triumph he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of Porus, to whom he was charged to supply favourable terms, however narrowly loose losing his life at the hands of his previous enemy. later, however, the 2 rivals were reconciled by the non-public mediation of Alexander; and Taxiles, once having contributed zealously to the instrumentality of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the govt of the full territory between that watercourse and therefore the Indus. a substantial accession of power was granted him once the death of prince, son of Machatas; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), similarly as within the ensuant partition of the provinces at Triparadisus, 321 BC.
In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander in person diode a campaign against these clans; the Aspasioi of Kunar valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus natural depression, and therefore the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys. A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi during which Alexander was wounded within the shoulder by a dart, however eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced  the Assakenoi, UN agency fought within the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and Aornos.
The fort of Massaga was reduced solely once days of bloody fighting, during which Alexander was wounded seriously within the ankle joint. consistent with Curtius, "Not solely did Alexander slaughter the whole population of Massaga, however conjointly did he scale back its buildings to rubble". an analogous slaughter followed at Ora. within the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, varied Assakenians fled to the defence of Aornos. Alexander followed shut behind and captured the strategic hill-fort once four bloody days.
After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus associated fought and won an epic battle against King Porus, UN agency dominated a neighborhood within the Punjab, within the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC. Alexander was affected by Porus's bravery, associated created him an ally. He appointed Porus as governor, and intercalary to Porus' territory land that he didn't antecedently own. selecting an area helped him management these lands therefore distant from Balkan country.Alexander supported 2 cities on opposite sides of the Hydaspes watercourse, naming one bird genus, in honor of his horse, UN agency died around this point. the opposite was city (Victory), thought to be placed at the positioning of contemporary day Mong, Punjab.

Revolt of the military:                       Alexander's invasion of the Indian landmass
East of Porus' kingdom, close to the Ganges River, were the Nanda Empire of Magadha and more east the Gangaridai Empire (of modern-day Bangladesh). Fearing the prospect of facing different giant armies and exhausted by years of candidature, Alexander's army mutinied at the Hyphasis watercourse (Beas), refusing to march farther east. This watercourse so marks the east extent of Alexander's conquests.
As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus dull their spirit and stayed their more advance into India. For having had all they might do to repulse associate enemy UN agency mustered solely twenty thousand army unit and 2 thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander once he insisted on crossing the watercourse Ganges conjointly, the dimension of that, as they learned, was 32 furlongs, its depth 100 fathoms, whereas its banks on the more facet were coated with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, 2 hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and 6 thousand war elephants.
Alexander tried to influence his troopers to march farther, however his general Coenus pleaded with him to vary his opinion and return; the boys, he said, "longed to once more see their oldsters, their wives and kids, their homeland". Alexander eventually united and turned south, walk on the Indus. on the means his army conquered the Malhi (in modern-day Multan) associated different Indian tribes and sustained an injury throughout the blockade.
Alexander sent abundant of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore underneath his admiral Nearchus, whereas he diode the remainder back to Persia through the harder southern route on the Gedrosian Desert and Makran. Alexander reached Susah in 324 BC, however not before losing several men to the cruel desert.

Last years in Persia:                                                     Alexander, left, and Hephaestion, right
Discovering that a lot of of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander dead many of them as examples on his thanks to Susah. As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his troopers, and proclaimed that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to geographical region, diode by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the city of Opis. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and therefore the introduction of Persian officers and troopers into Macedonian units.
After 3 days, unable to influence his men to back off, Alexander gave Persians command posts within the army and given Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, that Alexander accepted, and command an excellent banquet for many thousand of his men at that he and that they Greek deity along. In an effort to craft an enduring harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander command a mass wedding of his senior officers to Persian and different noblewomen at Susah, however few of these marriages appear to possess lasted abundant on the far side a year. meantime, upon his come back, Alexander learned that guards of the place of Cyrus the good had profaned it, and fleetly dead them. this was as a result of Alexander the good was himself taken with with and loved Cyrus the good, from associate early age reading Xenophon's Cyropaedia, that represented Cyrus's valor in battle and governance and his talents as a king and a lawmaker. throughout his visit to Pasargadae he ordered Aristobulus to embellish the inside of the sepulchral chamber of his place.
After Alexander traveled to Ecbatana to retrieve the majority of the Persian treasure, his nearest friend and doable lover, Hephaestion, died of health problem or poisoning. Hephaestion's death ravaged Alexander, and he ordered the preparation of a rich mound in metropolis, similarly as a decree for public mourning. Back in metropolis, Alexander planned a series of recent campaigns, starting with associate invasion of peninsula, however he wouldn't have an opportunity to appreciate them, as he died shortly thenceforth.

 Character:
Generalship:

The Battle of the Battle of Granicus River, 334 BC

The Battle of pitched battle, 333 BC
Alexander earned  the epithet "the Great" owing to his alone success as a military commander.He ne'er lost a battle, despite usually being outnumbered. This was owing to use of tract, phalanx and cavalry techniques, daring strategy, and therefore the fierce loyalty of his troops. The Macedonian phalanx, armed with the sarissa, a spear vi metres (20 ft) long, had been developed and formed by prince II through rigorous coaching, and Alexander used its speed and manoeuvrability to nice result against larger however additional disparate Persian forces. Alexander additionally recognized the potential for disagreement among his numerous army, that utilized varied languages and weapons. He overcame this by being in person concerned in battle, within the manner of a Macedonian king.
In his initial battle in Asia, at Battle of Granicus River, Alexander used solely atiny low a part of his forces[citation needed], perhaps 13,000 foot with five,000 cavalry, against a far larger Persian force of forty,000. Alexander placed the phalanx at the middle and cavalry and archers on the wings, so his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, concerning three kilometer (1.86 mi). in contrast, the Persian foot was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander wouldn't be outflanked, whereas his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a substantial advantage over the Persian's scimitars and javelins. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians.
At pitched battle in 333 B.C., his initial confrontation with Darius, he used an equivalent readying, and once more the central phalanx pushed through. Alexander in person diode the charge within the center, routing the opposing army. At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to interrupt up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander organized a double phalanx, with the middle advancing at AN angle, parting once the chariots bore down then reforming. The advance was triple-crown and bust Darius' center, inflicting the latter to escape once more.
When sweet-faced with opponents UN agency used strange fighting techniques, like in Central Asia and Asian country, Alexander custom-made his forces to his opponents' vogue. Thus, in Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander with success used his javelin throwers and archers to stop outflanking movements, whereas massing his cavalry at the middle. In Asian country, confronted by Porus' elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to enclose the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers.
Physical look
Roman copy of a herma by Lysippos, Louvre. biographer reports that sculptures by Lysippos were the foremost trustworthy.
Greek author biographer (c. 45–120 AD) describes Alexander's look as:
¹ The outward look of Alexander is best portrayed by the statues of him that sculptor created, and it absolutely was by this creator alone that Alexander himself thought it match that he ought to be modelled. ² For those peculiarities that several of his successors and friends afterward tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, that was bent slightly to the left, and therefore the melting look of his eyes, this creator has accurately ascertained. ³ Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, failed to reproduce his complexion, however created it too dark and brunet . Whereas he was of a good color, as they assert, and his fairness passed into skin colour on his breast notably, and in his face. 4 Moreover, that a awfully pleasant odour exhaled from his skin which there was a fragrance concerning his mouth and every one his flesh, so his clothes were stuffed with it, this we've scan within the Memoirs of Aristoxenus.
Greek scholar Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' c. 86–160) delineated  Alexander as:
[T]he sturdy, handsome commander with one eye dark because the night and one blue because the sky.
The semi-legendary Alexander Romance additionally suggests that Alexander suffered from heterochromia iridum: that one eye was dark and therefore the different lightweight.
British scholar Peter inexperienced provided an outline of Alexander's look, supported his review of statues and a few ancient documents:
Physically, Alexander wasn't attractive. Even by Macedonian standards he was terribly short, although compact and difficult. His beard was scanty, and he stood out against his shock-headed Macedonian barons by going shaved. His neck was in how twisted, so he perceived to be gazing upward at AN angle. His eyes (one blue, one brown) discovered a bedewed, female quality. He had a high complexion and a harsh voice.
Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was therefore happy with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade different sculptors from crafting his image. Lysippos had typically used the Contrapposto sculptural theme to portray Alexander and different characters like Apoxyomenos, Greek deity and Greek deity. Lysippos' sculpture, famed for its naturalism, as critical a stiffer, additional static create, is assumed to be the foremost trustworthy depiction.
Personality:
Alexander (left) fighting AN Asiatic lion along with his friend Craterus (detail). third century B.C. mosaic, Pella deposit.
Some of Alexander's strongest temperament traits shaped in response to his folks. His mother had vast ambitions, and inspired him to believe it absolutely was his destiny to beat the empire.Olympias' influence instilled a way of destiny in him, and biographer tells USA that his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty before of his years." but, his father prince was Alexander's most immediate and prestigious leader, because the young Alexander watched him campaign much each year, winning ending once ending whereas ignoring severe wounds. Alexander's relationship along with his father solid the competitive aspect of his personality; he had a desire to out-do his father, illustrated by his reckless behavior in battle. whereas Alexander troubled that his father would go away him "no nice or sensible accomplishment to be exhibited to the world", he additionally downplayed his father's achievements to his companions.

According to biographer, among Alexander's traits were a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature, that beyond question contributed to a number of his selections. though Alexander was stubborn and failed to respond well to orders from his father, he was receptive reasoned discussion. He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and hard. He had a good want for information, a love for philosophy, and was an infatuated reader. This was little doubt partly owing to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and fast to be told. His intelligent and rational aspect was amply incontestible by his ability and success as a general. He had nice control in "pleasures of the body," in distinction along with his lack of self management with alcohol.
Alexander was scholarly and patronized  each arts and sciences. but, he had very little interest in sports or the Olympic games (unlike his father), seeking solely the Homeric ideals of honor (timê) and glory (kudos). He had nice attractiveness and force of temperament, characteristics that created him a good leader. His distinctive talents were additional incontestible by the shortcoming of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire once his death – solely Alexander had the flexibility to try and do therefore.
During his final years, and particularly once the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of mental disease and psychosis. His extraordinary achievements, as well as his own ineffable sense of destiny and therefore the compliment of his companions, might have combined to provide this result. His delusions of grandeur area unit promptly visible in his testament and in his want to beat the planet, in the maximum amount, he's by varied sources delineated  as having limitless ambition, AN epithet, the that means of that, has descended into AN historical cliché.
He seems to possess believed himself a god, or a minimum of sought-after to deify himself.Olympias perpetually insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus, a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at Siwa. He began to spot himself because the son of Zeus-Ammon.Alexander adopted parts of Persian dress and customs at court, notably proskynesis, a observe of that Macedonians censured, and were loath to perform. This behavior value him the sympathies of the many of his countrymen. but, Alexander additionally was a practical ruler UN agency understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, several of whom lived in kingdoms wherever the king was divine. so, instead of mental disease, his behavior might merely are a sensible try at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire along.
Personal relationship.:
Main article: Personal relationships of Alexander the nice

A mural in metropolis, representational process the wedding of Alexander to Barsine (Stateira) in 324 B.C.. The couple area unit apparently dressed as Ares and Aphrodite.

Alexander married twice: Roxana, female offspring of the Bactrian Lord Oxyartes, out of love;and Stateira II, a Persian aristocrat and female offspring of Darius III of Persia, for political reasons.He apparently had 2 sons, Alexander IV of Makedonija of Roxana and, possibly, Heracles of Makedonija from his mistress Barsine. He lost another kid once Roxana miscarried at metropolis.
Alexander additionally had a detailed relationship along with his friend, general, and bodyguard Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble. Hephaestion's death blasted Alexander. This event might have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached condition throughout his final months.
Alexander's sex has been the topic of speculation and tilt. No ancient sources declared that Alexander had homosexual relationships, or that Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion was sexual. Aelian, however, writes of Alexander's visit to Troy wherever "Alexander garlanded the place of mythical being and Hephaestion that of mythical being, the latter riddling that he was a beloved of Alexander, in precisely an equivalent means as mythical being was of Achilles". Noting that the word eromenos (ancient Greek for beloved) doesn't essentially bear sexual that means, Alexander might are bisexual, that in his time wasn't arguable
Green argues that there's very little proof in ANcient sources that Alexander had abundant carnal interest in women; he failed to turn out an heir till the terribly finish of his life. but, he was comparatively young once he died, and Ogden suggests that Alexander's married record is additional spectacular than his father's at an equivalent age. except wives, Alexander had more feminine companions. Alexander accumulated a serail within the type of Persian kings, however he used it rather sparingly;showing nice self-control in "pleasures of the body". even so, biographer delineated  however Alexander was taken with by Roxana whereas complimenting him on not forcing himself on her. inexperienced instructed that, within the context of the amount, Alexander shaped quite sturdy friendships with ladies, together with enzyme of Caria, UN agency adopted him, and even Darius's mother Sisygambis, UN agency purportedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death.
Legacy:

The Hellenistical position once Alexander: ancient world map of Eratosthenes (276–194 BC), incorporating data from the campaigns of Alexander and his successors.
Alexander's heritage extended on the far side his military conquests. His campaigns greatly enhanced contacts and trade between East and West, and huge areas to the east were considerably exposed to Greek civilization and influence. a number of the cities he supported became major cultural centers, several extant into the twenty first century. His chroniclers recorded valuable data concerning the areas through that he marched, whereas the Greeks themselves got a way of happiness to a world on the far side the Mediterranean.
Hellenistic kingdoms:
Main article: Hellenistical amount

Alexander's most immediate heritage was the introduction of Macedonian rule to very large new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire lined some five,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi), and was the most important state of its time. several of those areas remained in Macedonian hands or underneath Greek influence for following 200–300 years. The successor states that emerged were, a minimum of at first, dominant forces, and these three hundred years area unit typically brought up because the Hellenistical amount.
Plan of Alexandria c. 30 BC
The japanese borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even throughout his lifespan.
but, the facility vacuum he left within the northwest of the Indian landmass directly gave rise to at least one of the foremost powerful Indian dynasties in history. Taking advantage of this, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of comparatively humble origin, took management of the Punjab, and thereupon power base proceeded to beat the Nanda Empire.
Founding of cities:
Over the course of his conquests, Alexander supported some twenty cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris River. the primary, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which might become one in every of the leading Mediterranean cities.The cities' locations mirrored trade routes moreover as defensive positions. At first, the cities should are inhospitable, very little over defensive garrisons. Following Alexander's death, several Greeks UN agency had settled there tried to come to Balkan state. but, a century just about once Alexander's death, several of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that enclosed each Greek and native peoples.
Hellenization:
Main article: Hellenistical civilization

Alexander's empire was the most important state of its time, covering just about five.2 million sq. kilometer.
Hellenization was coined by the German scholar Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the unfold of Greek language, culture, and population into the previous empire once Alexander's conquest.That this export passed is undisputed, and might be seen within the nice Hellenistical cities of, as an example, Alexandria, Antioch and Seleucia (south of contemporary Baghdad).Alexander sought-after to insert Greek parts into Persian culture and tried to interbreed Greek and Persian culture. This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe. However, his successors expressly rejected such policies. even so, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, in the midst of a definite and opposite 'Orientalization' of the Successor states.
The core of Hellenistical culture was basically Athenian. The shut association of men from across Balkan state in Alexander's army directly diode to the emergence of the for the most part Attic-based "koine", or "common" Greek idiom. Koine unfold throughout the Hellenistical world, changing into the linguistic communication of Hellenistical lands and eventually the ascendant of contemporary Greek. what is more, urban planning, education, government, and art current within the Hellenistical amount were all supported Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms usually classified as Hellenistical. Aspects of Hellenistical culture were still evident within the traditions of the geographic area within the mid-15th century.

The Buddha, in Greco-Buddhist vogue, 1st–2nd century AD, Gandhara, ancient Asian country. Edo National deposit.
Some of the foremost uncommon effects of Hellenization will be seen in Afghanistan and Asian country, within the region of the comparatively late-arising Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250 BC-125 BC) in trendy Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Asian nation and therefore the Greco-Indian Kingdom (180 B.C. - ten CE) in trendy Afghanistan and Asian country. There on the freshly shaped Silk Road Greek culture apparently hybridized with Indian, and particularly Buddhist culture. The ensuing syncretism called Greco-Buddhism heavily influenced the event of Buddhism and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist art. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent a number of the primary Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka, and therefore the Mediterranean (Greco-Buddhist monasticism). the primary figurative portrayals of Gautama Siddhartha, antecedently avoided by Buddhists, appeared at this time; they were sculptured on Greek statues of Apollo. many Buddhist traditions might are influenced by the traditional Greek religion: the thought of Boddhisatvas is paying homage to Greek divine heroes, and a few Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) area unit like those practiced by the traditional Greeks. One Greek king, Menander I, most likely became Buddhist, and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as 'Milinda'. the method of Hellenization extended to the sciences, wherever concepts from Greek natural philosophy filtered eastward and had deeply influenced Indian natural philosophy by the first centuries AD. as an example, Greek astronomical instruments chemical analysis to the third century B.C. were found within the Greco-Bactrian town of Ai Khanoum in modern Afghanistan whereas the Greek thought of a spherical earth encircled by the spheres of planets was adopted in Asian country and eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a flat and circular earth. The Yavanajataka and Paulisa Siddhanta texts especially show Greek influence.
Influence on Rome:

This medallion was made in Imperial Rome, demonstrating the influence of Alexander's memory. Walters Art deposit, Baltimore.
Alexander and his exploits were loved by several Romans, particularly generals, UN agency needed to associate themselves along with his achievements. Polybius began his Histories by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thenceforth Roman leaders saw him as a task model. Pompey the nice adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, that he then wore as a proof of greatness. full general dedicated a Lysippean equestrian bronze sculpture however replaced Alexander's head along with his own, whereas solon visited Alexander's place in Alexandria and briefly modified his seal from a sphinx to Alexander's profile.The emperor Roman Emperor additionally loved Alexander, as did Nero and Caracalla. The Macriani, a Roman family that within the person of Macrinus in short ascended to the imperial throne, unbroken pictures of Alexander on their persons, either on jewellery, or adorned  into their garments.

The Greco-Bactrian king general (reigned c. 200–180 BC), sporting AN elephant scalp, took over Alexander's heritage within the east by once more offensive Asian country, and establishing the Indo-Greek kingdom (180 BC–10 AD).
On the opposite hand, some Roman writers, notably Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of however autocratic tendencies will be unbroken in restraint by republican values. Alexander was utilized by these writers as AN example of ruler values like amicita (friendship) and clementia (clemency), however additionally iracundia (anger) and cupiditas gloriae (over-desire for glory).
Legend:
Main article: Alexander the nice in legend
Legendary accounts surround the lifetime of Alexander the nice, several account from his own lifespan, most likely inspired by Alexander himself.His court scholar Callisthenes represented the ocean in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly once Alexander's death, another participant, Onesicritus, fancied a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the legendary Amazons. once Onesicritus scan this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King general reportedly quipped, "I surprise wherever i used to be at the time."
In the initial centuries once Alexander's death, most likely in Alexandria, a amount of the legendary material amalgamated into a text called the Alexander Romance, later incorrectly ascribed to Callisthenes and thus called Pseudo-Callisthenes. This text underwent varied expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and therefore the Middle Ages, containing several dubious stories,[230] and was translated into varied languages.
In ancient and trendy culture:
Main articles: Cultural depictions of Alexander the nice and Alexander the nice within the Koran

Alexander the nice represented in a very 14th-century Byzantine manuscript
Alexander the Great's accomplishments and heritage are represented in several cultures. Alexander has patterned in each high and widespread culture starting in his own era to this day. The Alexander Romance, especially, has had a big impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to Hellenic language.
Alexander might have already got thought of himself because the "King of Asia" once his ending at Issos, a conception reinforced by his resulting successes.The conception may need impressed the title given to Alexander in Babylonian documents, "king of the planet (since "king of Asia" had no that means in Babylonian geography). it'd even be alluded within the sarcastic  comments by Anaxarchus, attempting to evoke Alexander once the murder of Cleitus. or within the speechifier Demades' comments that if Alexander were dead, "the whole world would stink of his corpse". Alexander is named "kosmokrator", ruler of the planet, within the later Alexander Romance. Alexander options conspicuously in Hellenic language lore, additional therefore than the other ancient figure. The informal kind of his name in Hellenic language ("O Megalexandros") may be a home name, and he's the sole ancient hero to seem within the Karagiozis galanty show. One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary imaginary being UN agency would grasp a ship's front throughout a storm and raise the captain "Is King Alexander alive?". the proper answer is "He is alive and well and rules the world!", inflicting the imaginary being to fade and therefore the ocean to calm. the other answer would cause the imaginary being to show into a raging mythical creature UN agency would drag the ship to all-time low of the ocean, all hands aboard.

Post-Islamic Persian miniature representational process Khidr and Alexander looking at the Water of Life revive a preserved fish
St. Augustine, in his book town of God, restated Cicero's parable showing that Alexander the nice was very little over a pacesetter of a thief band:
And so if justice is unseen, what area unit kingdoms except nice thief bands? For what area unit thief bands except very little kingdoms? The band is also a bunch of men ruled by the orders of a pacesetter, sure by a social compact, and its pillage is split in keeping with a law approved. If by repeatedly adding desperate men this plague grows to the purpose wherever it holds territory and establishes a hard and fast seat, seizes cities and subdues individuals, then it additional prominently assumes the name of kingdom, and this name is currently brazenly granted thereto, not for any subtraction of covetousness, however by addition of freedom. For it absolutely was a sublime and true reply that was created to Alexander the nice by a definite pirate whom he had captured. once the king asked him what he was thinking of, that he ought to molest the ocean, he aforementioned with defiant  independence: 'The same as you once you molest the world! Since I do that with alittle ship i'm known as a pirate. {you do|you area unit doing} it with a good fleet and are known as emperor'.
In pre-Islamic Middle Persian (Zoroastrian) literature, Alexander is brought up by the epithet gujastak, that means "accursed", and is defendant of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Mazdaism. In Muslim Persia, underneath the influence of the Alexander Romance (in Persian: اسکندرنامه‎ Iskandarnamah), a additional positive portrayal of Alexander emerges.Firdausi's Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings") includes Alexander in a very line of legitimate Iranian shahs, a legendary figure UN agency explored the way reaches of the planet in search of the Fountain of Youth. Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portrayal him at a conference with figures like Athenian, Plato and philosopher, in search of immortality.
The Syriac version of the Alexander Romance portrays him as a perfect Christian world victor UN agency prayed to "the one true God". In Egypt, Alexander was represented because the son of Nectanebo II, the last swayer before the Persian conquest. His defeat of Darius was represented as Egypt's salvation, "proving" Egypt was still dominated by AN Egyptian.
The figure of Dhul-Qarnayn (literally "the Two-Horned One") mentioned within the Koran is believed by some students to represent Alexander, owing to parallels with the Alexander Romance. during this tradition, he was a heroic figure UN agency engineered a wall to defend against the nations of Gog and Magog. He then traveled the known  world in seek for the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually changing into a prophet.
In Hindi and Urdu, the name "Sikandar", derived from Persian, denotes a rising young talent. In medieval Europe he was created a member of the 9 Worthies, a bunch of heroes UN agency encapsulated all the perfect qualities of chivalry.